The question of what constitutes the genesis of the state has long been intertwined with the notion of war, as Charles Tilly famously argued, and this perspective has held sway in comparative politics and international relations for decades. However, in a groundbreaking study, Anna M. Grzymala-Busse boldly challenges this prevailing explanation in her latest work, Sacred Foundations: The Religious and Medieval Roots of the European State. She argues that war, often considered a linchpin in state formation, is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition. Grzymala-Busse focuses on state formation in Europe, positing that the state possesses what she terms "sacred foundations." Her central thesis is that a millennium ago, the Roman Catholic Church broke free from the shackles of secular control. In doing so, it profoundly reshaped politics, law, and governance. Furthermore, the Church wielded considerable influence over monarchs and played an instrumental role in shaping the trajectory of European state formation.
At the outset, Grzymala-Busse astutely observes that existing explanations concerning the genesis of the modern state predominantly center around the early modern era, spanning from 1500 to 1800. These explanations contend that the persistent wars of the time, the evolution of taxation and parliamentary institutions, and the advent of Enlightenment ideas collectively laid the groundwork for the emergence of the modern state. However, Grzymala-Busse discerns a fundamental incompleteness in this narrative, as it fails to address some important questions and historical developments. Most notably, it does not elucidate the origins of the institution of taxation and the cultivation of a culture of learning, which predated the deployment of such institutions by monarchs and kings for the purposes of warfare.
To address these lingering questions, Grzymala-Busse argues that the medieval Roman Catholic Church played an important role in shaping the trajectory of European state formation. The Church, rather than merely being a passive observer, emerged as a formidable rival to secular rulers and left an indelible imprint on pivotal state institutions through its innovative administrative solutions and conceptual contributions. However, her argument is not one-dimensional. Though she argues that “the medieval church fundamentally shaped state formation in Europe” (12), she makes it clear that “this is not to claim that the church somehow determined the course of European state development” (181).
Grzymala-Busse's narrative unveils the profound influence of the medieval church in Europe. Rooted in extensive land ownership—nearly 20 percent of European lands by 1200—its financial strength thrived on voluntary contributions, property transfers, and bequests. Taxation methods, like per capita levies and a 10 percent income tithe, fortified its wealth. The educated clergy served as administrators and legal authorities, rivaling secular rulers. Beyond faith, the church shaped law, medicine, philosophy, and scholarship while offering salvation. It pioneered governance with meticulous record-keeping, administrative reforms, and key institutions, streamlining medieval state organization.
The Church also played a pivotal part in shaping the development of European parliaments during its prime, according to Grzymala-Busse. While these early parliamentary structures were far from democratic, the Church provided essential institutional blueprints, voting protocols, and concepts surrounding binding representation and consent. Within the ecclesiastical realm, Church synods and councils introduced majority decision-making rules, which marked a departure from the earlier norms of unanimity and consensus. These foundational principles set the stage for the emergence and subsequent evolution of parliaments, influenced by a myriad of factors, including external threats, domestic power dynamics, and the growing influence of urban centers.
The question at hand pertains to the timing of state formation, specifically why some states came into existence earlier than others. Grzymala-Busse offers a compelling answer to this query, positing that "rivalry and emulation help to explain variation in the timing and pattern of medieval European state formation" (5). She argues that the divergence in medieval European state formation can be attributed to the papacy's response to the perceived power of the ruling authorities. In regions characterized by formidable rulers, such as the Holy Roman Empire, the papacy employed strategies like ideological influence and proxy conflicts, ultimately leading to fragmented central state institutions. Conversely, in areas where rulers posed less of a threat, such as England, the process of state development advanced with minimal church intervention. In distant or weaker regions, the church exhibited reduced interest in authority fragmentation, thereby facilitating the adoption of its institutional models.
Finally, Grzymala-Busse's work delves into the Reformation era, when the Church's control began to diminish. Even before the Protestant Reformation of the late 14th century, secular monarchs began asserting more dominance in a process known as "institutional subversion" (6). They reshaped ideas that originated in the Church, bolstering their own governance and sovereignty while undermining the church. This led to organized bureaucracies, centralized justice systems, paid mercenaries, taxation, and national assemblies, shaping early concepts of sovereignty and statehood. Meanwhile, the church's influence dwindled as secular structures adopted their own taxation methods, enhancing nobility power and royal authority. This backdrop set the stage for the Protestant Reformation, driven by church division and secular ascendancy, diverting popes into financial and diplomatic matters.
Grzymala-Busse presents a paradigm-shifting argument and to substantiate it, she offers rich content—tables, figures, maps, and data summarizing historical developments in Europe from 1000 to 1850. Moreover, the book compiles and draws from three datasets, including city-level data covering aspects like population and urbanization, state-level data focusing on fragmentation and communes, and data on ruler durations and excommunications.
This book is of profound significance, as it offers a fresh and innovative perspective on the process of state formation in Europe. Even more notably, it places a significant emphasis on the pivotal role of religion in forming the very institutions that continue to shape our world today. Grzymala-Busse's book serves as a compelling testament to the notion that ideas and institutions, particularly religious ones, have wielded a far more influential role in the construction of the modern world than is commonly acknowledged. We are in need of more works of political science that advance this profound insight.
Farah Adeed is a PhD student at Boston University.
Farah Adeed
Date Of Review:
October 21, 2023
